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Warfare around 1400

Warfare around 1400
Kingdom Come: Deliverance II Friday, 1. November 2024

Period warfare set against the backdrop of Kingdom Come: Deliverance 2 in the early 15th century.

Screenshot from the computer game Kingdome Come: Deliverance.

In the High Middle Ages (c. 11th century – 1350) and Late Middle Ages (c. 1350-1500), armies were often organized in structural units known as “lances” (or „lance fournie“). This system originated in Western Europe during the 13th century. The primary combat force—and the only real striking one—was heavy cavalry. Each “lance” typically included a heavily armored knight and several accompanying men in both combat and non-combat roles. The number of men varied over time and according to the traditions of each country. In Central Europe, particularly in the Holy Roman Empire (including the Kingdom of Bohemia), a “lance” generally consisted of three men: a heavy cavalryman (usually noble), a semi-heavy cavalryman (often a noble squire but not always), and a non-combatant page or servant. The semi-heavy cavalrymen usually assisted their lords in the battle or could be temporarily assigned to independent units. Pages or servants were generally non-combatants, handling horses, food, and equipment. The heavy cavalry was organized by banners, with heavy cavalrymen bound by feudal service due to theirs fiefdoms or by serving as mercenaries under the banner of their feudal lord (or for a wage). These lesser-banners then assembled under the main banner of a high-ranking secular or clerical leader—an earl, duke, bishop, or even the king.

Screenshot from the computer game Kingdome Come: Deliverance - Hungarian Army.

In addition to heavy cavalrymen and semi-heavy cavalrymen, there was also light cavalry of the so-called „European type“— i. e. lightly armored cavalrymen often equipped with bows or crossbows, although they generally shot from the ground. There was also „Eastern-style“ light cavalry with minimal armor, using sabers and reflex bows for mounted archery. This style typically involved ethnic groups or nationalities culturally inclined towards it, like the Poles, Southeast Europeans, Russians, and especially Hungarians, including the Cuman ethnic group. Light cavalry, regardless of type, primarily performed reconnaissance duties and raid operations.

Screenshot from the computer game Kingdome Come: Deliverance - Cumans.

The role of infantry was more awkward compared to cavalry. At the end of the Early Middle Ages, infantry had somewhat receded in importance; it was valued mainly for siege warfare and guard duties, while cavalry was seen as the superior military force. However, experience slowly proved that determined infantry could withstand and even defeat cavalry attacks. This was evident not only in English longbowmen, who could devastate charging knights with concentrated fire, or in crossbowmen shielded by pavises, capable of similar feats. Infantry with polearms could also win in open field, as demonstrated in European battles like Courtrai in 1302, Bannockburn in 1314, and Sempach in 1386. For infantry to effectively counter armored cavalry, longer spears, around 4 meters (surpassing the cavalry lance’s typical 3-meter length), became essential. It would take another century for this weapon type, soon called the “pike,” to be widely adopted across Europe. By 1400, however, heavy cavalry largely remained dominant. Infantry units were comprised of urban or rural levies (or personally free peasants in certain areas), lower or non-noble members of noble retinues or castle garrisons, and groups of professional mercenaries.

Screenshot from the computer game Kingdome Come: Deliverance.

Cities played a crucial role in warfare. They were centers of weapon production and trade in military materials and could provide specialized craftsmen and experts to manufacture and operate indispensable siege engines—both traditional mechanical artillery and new black powder cannons. Cities also often maintained their own military forces, typically including a small contingent of long-term mercenaries tasked with military and police duties. The main city force, however, consisted of city militias organized by „district banners“ under district captains, who answered to a main captain responsible to the city council. Captains were usually professional soldiers descending from the rank of lower nobility. Below the district banners, city forces were organized by guilds. City contingents usually had a few cavalrymen, especially heavy cavalrymen — just some wealthy citizens and hired mercenaries made up most of the city’s cavalry. The city’s armed forces were primarily infantry, equipped with polearms, pavises, crossbows, bows, and – from the late 14th century – the first black powder firearms.

Screenshot from the computer game Kingdome Come: Deliverance II - Siege camp of the contingent of the city of Prague.

In terms of tactics, the Middle Ages are often criticized for a perceived lack of originality and strategic thought. This is only partially accurate. While several battle formations were common—either a linear arrangement of troops often (though not necessarily) in a left-wing-center-right-wing pattern, or deploying in a “vanguard-main force-rearguard” order—these were model arrangements. In fact the initial battlefield setup depended on terrain and the commanders’ individual experience. Battles could begin formally at an agreed signal or be initiated unilaterally, even by deceit. Despite the chivalric codes, medieval warfare could also be ruthless, with the adage “the end justifies the means” often prevailing. This pragmatism included using infantry strategically, even imposing a foot-battle structure on the enemy. For contrast, consider the battles of Grunwald in 1410 and Agincourt in 1415. Grunwald was primarily a cavalry battle (heavy armored knights in particular), while at Agincourt, the English King Henry IV took a defensive stance with archers protected by stakes, shooting at advancing French cavalry. The French eventually dismounted to continue the fight on foot, leading to a clash with English infantry already prepared to fight on foot.

Screenshot from the computer game Kingdome Come: Deliverance - Siege.

These larger battles aside, everyday medieval warfare employed tactics familiar to later eras: raiding supply columns, cutting off communications, blockades, capturing smaller strongholds, and engaging in skirmishes to deplete the enemy’s forces. Siege warfare was also a key element, which warrants a separate discussion—whether involving older siege engines or newer methods increasingly influenced by gunpowder from the late 14th century onwards...

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