Long knives, commonly known by the German term "sax", were a significant element of the early medieval armament.
The earliest saxes probably originated in the Merovingian period and developed from the knives of Germanic tribes.
The development of saxes varied by region, but overall, their blades gradually lengthened between the 6th and 8th centuries.
Classification of Long Knives - Saxes
Narrow sax (Schmalsax) – The earliest form of a long knife appeared in the second half of the 5th century. The blades were 33–46 cm long and 2.6–3.2 cm wide.
Short sax (Kurzsax) – In the second half of the 5th century, shorter blades (18–30 cm) with a width of 2.5–3.5 cm appeared. In the 6th century, the blade width increased to 3.5–5 cm.
Light broad sax (Leichter Breitsax) – Developed at the end of the 6th century, with a blade length of 26–42 cm and a width of 4–5 cm.
Heavy broad sax (Schwerer Breitsax) – A more massive version appeared in the 7th century with a blade width of over 5 cm and a length of 34–46 cm.
Long sax (Langsax) – Used from the 7th to the 8th century, with blade lengths of 48–65 cm and widths of 3.8–4.8 cm.
According to archaeological finds, long saxes still appear in graves in the second half of the 8th century.
The decline of saxes in the Frankish Empire was associated with the Carolingian reforms, which promoted the centralized production of double-edged swords. This development made saxes increasingly obsolete, leading to their gradual disappearance from Frankish military tradition.
Although saxes disappeared from the Frankish Empire by the late 8th century, they continued to be used on the peripheries of the empire and in other regions where they had traditionally been popular.
Long knives were still used in the 9th century in areas east of the Frankish Empire – in present-day Austria, Moravia, Slovakia, and Hungary.
Saxes from the British Isles
In England, long knives were used even in the 9th–11th centuries, characterized by their angled spine (so-called "broken back" seax). The most notable examples include decorated knives found in the Thames (Beagnoth seax) and Sittingbourne. Their use is also evidenced by numerous sheath finds and iconographic depictions.
Viking Saxes from Scandinavia
In Scandinavia, long knives appeared in the 9th and possibly into the 10th century. Norwegian types measured 20–50 cm, while Danish types were longer (35–45 cm). Archaeological evidence suggests these knives were primarily used for hunting and meat processing.
Further development led to the emergence of single-edged swords, which began appearing in the mid-8th century and gradually replaced long knives in the 9th–10th centuries. These swords combined elements of long knives and full-fledged swords and were particularly popular in Norway.
The development of long knives in the early medieval period was dynamic and varied by region. While saxes were the dominant type of cutting weapon in the Frankish Empire and the Merovingian world during the 6th–8th centuries, their role was gradually taken over by double-edged swords. Nevertheless, saxes remained popular in some regions until the 10th century. In England and Scandinavia, long knives continued to be used throughout the 9th century and to a lesser extent in the 10th century. In the Scandinavian context, their development transitioned into single-edged swords, which combined features of long knives with fully functional swords.
